Swedish FFV 016 Off-Route Mine

1. Overview

The FFV 016 is a Swedish-designed off-route anti-vehicle mine that employs a Misznay-Schardin effect warhead to produce an explosively formed projectile (EFP), also known as a self-forging fragment (SFF). Unlike conventional buried mines, the FFV 016 is mounted above ground on a tree, pole, or stake and fires a high-velocity metallic slug laterally across the roadway at passing vehicles. The EFP achieves an initial velocity of approximately 2,000 meters per second and can penetrate 60 mm of armor at a range of 30 meters. The mine is currently in service with the Swedish Armed Forces under the designation Fordonsmina 14 (Frdm 14) and is produced by Saab Bofors Dynamics. The FFV 016 design originated in Finland as the Kylkimiina 87 (KM 87) before being adopted and produced by Sweden.

⚠️ SAFETY WARNING: All ordnance should be considered dangerous until proven safe by qualified personnel. Off-route mines may be armed and command-detonation circuits may be live. This information is for educational and identification training purposes only.

2. Country/Bloc of Origin

  • Country of Origin: Finland (original design as Kylkimiina 87) / Sweden (production and service)
  • Finnish Development: Developed by Oy Hackman AB (also known as Hackman Housewares Finncrown factory)
  • Swedish Production: Produced by Saab Bofors Dynamics (formerly FFV Ordnance, later Bofors Anti-Armour Systems)
  • Period of Development: 1980s; the Finnish Kylkimiina 87 designation indicates approximately 1987
  • Swedish Service Designation: Fordonsmina 14 (Frdm 14, meaning “Vehicle Mine 14”)

3. Ordnance Class

  • Type of Weapon: Off-route anti-vehicle mine
  • Primary Role: Anti-vehicle (designed against lightly armored vehicles); capable of damaging heavier armored vehicles through side armor engagement
  • Delivery Method: Hand-emplaced; mounted to trees, poles, stakes, or other above-ground fixtures using straps and mounting brackets
  • Operating Principle: Misznay-Schardin effect — a concave copper or metal liner backed by explosive is detonated, collapsing the liner into a high-velocity self-forging projectile that travels laterally to strike the target vehicle’s side armor
  • Initiation: Primarily command-detonated; can also be initiated by tripwire or pressure-activated devices across the target vehicle’s path

4. Ordnance Family / Nomenclature

  • Official Designations:
    • FFV 016 (manufacturer/export designation)
    • Fordonsmina 14 / Frdm 14 (Swedish Armed Forces designation)
    • Kylkimiina 87 / KM 87 (Finnish Armed Forces designation)
  • Manufacturer: Saab Bofors Dynamics (Sweden)
  • Related Systems:
    • FFV 018 — Larger Swedish off-route anti-tank mine; uses a more powerful Misznay-Schardin warhead capable of penetrating main battle tank side armor; mounted on a squat tripod with a built-in infrared sensor package for autonomous target detection and engagement
  • Comparable Systems: US M24 Off-Route Mine (discontinued); various other EFP-based off-route mines from multiple nations; IED-based EFP devices modeled on this concept

5. Hazards

  • Explosively Formed Projectile: The primary threat is the high-velocity EFP that travels at approximately 2,000 m/s. This slug can penetrate 60 mm of armor at 30 meters and remains lethal well beyond this range (some sources cite an effective range of up to 100 meters).
  • Explosive Content: The mine contains a significant quantity of high explosive behind the metallic liner. Detonation produces both the EFP and blast/fragmentation effects in the vicinity of the mine itself.
  • Directional Hazard: The EFP is projected in a specific direction (aimed by the built-in sight). The danger zone is primarily in the direction the mine is aimed, but blast and fragmentation extend in all directions around the mine body.
  • Command Detonation Wiring: The mine is typically employed with electrical command-detonation circuits. Live wiring may be present, and stray electrical signals could potentially initiate the mine.
  • Alternative Initiation: Tripwire and pressure-activated initiation systems may be employed, making approach to the mine from any direction potentially hazardous.
  • Mounting Instability: The mine is strapped to trees or poles and may become unstable due to weathering, wind, tree growth or decay, or deterioration of mounting straps. A fallen mine with live initiation systems is extremely dangerous.
  • Camouflage: Off-route mines are specifically designed to be emplaced away from the roadway and camouflaged, making them extremely difficult to detect by conventional mine clearance methods (mine rollers, plows, and magnetic detection are ineffective).
  • UXO Considerations: A mine that has been emplaced but not fired remains fully armed. The explosive and liner assembly does not degrade significantly over time. Command-detonation wiring may be disconnected but the mine can be re-initiated. Anti-handling provisions may be incorporated.
  • IED Relevance: The EFP principle used in the FFV 016 has been widely copied in improvised explosive devices, particularly in Iraq and Afghanistan. Recognition of the EFP warhead concept is critical for EOD personnel.

6. Key Identification Features

  • Body Shape: Circular disc-shaped body with a distinctive dished (concave) front face — this concavity is the metallic liner that forms the EFP
  • Aiming Sight: A simple built-in sight permanently affixed to the top of the mine body, used to aim the mine along the expected route of the target vehicle
  • Mounting Features: Two footman loops (one on each side of the sight) for attachment of a mounting strap; can also use a metal mounting bracket
  • Mounting Strap: An adjustable webbing strap with cam buckle, approximately 4 feet (1.2 m) long and 1 inch (25 mm) wide, used to secure the mine to a tree or pole up to approximately 368 mm (14.5 inches) in diameter
  • Weight: Approximately 3 kg (varies by source; the related FFV 018 weighs approximately 15 kg)
  • Color/Finish: Typically olive drab or forest green for camouflage
  • Rear Face: Flat or slightly convex rear; may show detonator well or connection points for command-detonation wiring
  • Size: Disc diameter is larger than a standard dinner plate; relatively thin profile
  • Key Distinction from FFV 018: The FFV 016 is lighter, simpler, and lacks the FFV 018’s built-in infrared sensor package and tripod mount. The FFV 016 relies on command detonation or simple trip/pressure initiation rather than autonomous target sensing.

7. Fuzing Mechanisms

  • Primary Initiation: Command detonation — an operator observes the target area and electrically detonates the mine when a target vehicle is in the optimal position relative to the mine’s aim point
  • Alternative Initiation Methods:
    • Tripwire stretched across the target vehicle’s path
    • Pressure bag or pressure plate across the target vehicle’s path
    • Electronic command detonation via wire or remote firing device
  • Detonator: Standard military electric or non-electric detonator inserted into the detonator well on the rear of the mine body
  • Arming: The mine is armed by inserting the detonator and connecting the initiation system (command wire, tripwire, etc.)
  • Safety: Prior to emplacement and arming, the mine is inert (no detonator installed). Safety is maintained by delaying detonator insertion until the mine is mounted and aimed.
  • Anti-Handling: While the basic FFV 016 does not have a built-in anti-handling device, operational doctrine may include adding anti-lift or anti-disturbance devices beneath or behind the mine to prevent enemy removal.
  • Self-Destruct/Self-Neutralization: The basic FFV 016 does not have a self-destruct or self-neutralization feature. Once emplaced and armed, it remains dangerous indefinitely until manually disarmed or destroyed. This is a significant humanitarian concern.

8. History of Development and Use

The FFV 016 has its origins in Finnish mine development. The Kylkimiina 87 (KM 87) was developed by the Finnish company Oy Hackman AB as an off-route anti-vehicle mine utilizing the Misznay-Schardin (explosively formed projectile) principle. This principle, discovered by Misznay and Schardin during World War II, describes how a concave metallic liner backed by explosive will collapse into a high-velocity projectile when detonated — essentially a shaped charge optimized to form a penetrating slug rather than a jet.

The design was subsequently licensed to Swedish manufacturer FFV Ordnance (later evolving through Bofors Anti-Armour Systems to the current Saab Bofors Dynamics), which produced the mine under the FFV 016 designation for export and Swedish military use. In Swedish service, it was designated Fordonsmina 14 (Frdm 14).

The FFV 016 was designed primarily for Nordic defense scenarios, particularly the defense of Sweden’s extensive road networks through forested terrain. The mine’s ability to be mounted to trees set back from the road made it ideal for ambush positions in Sweden’s dense forests, where conventional buried mines might be impractical due to rocky terrain or frozen ground.

The mine represents an important conceptual bridge between conventional anti-vehicle mines and the modern proliferation of EFP-based weapons. The same Misznay-Schardin principle was later exploited extensively by insurgent groups in Iraq and Afghanistan to create improvised EFP devices that proved devastatingly effective against coalition armored vehicles. Understanding the FFV 016 and its operating principle is therefore essential for comprehending the broader EFP threat.

The FFV 016 has been reported in service or available for export in multiple countries. Its Finnish origin (KM 87) means it is also in Finnish military inventory. The mine has been identified in the context of the Russia-Ukraine conflict, where Swedish military aid has included various weapon systems.

Saab Bofors Dynamics also developed the larger FFV 018 off-route mine, which incorporates a built-in infrared sensor package capable of autonomously detecting and engaging targets. The FFV 018 represents the next evolutionary step — from command-detonated off-route mine to an autonomous “intelligent” mine system.

9. Technical Specifications

SpecificationDetail
DesignationFFV 016 / Fordonsmina 14 (Frdm 14) / Kylkimiina 87 (KM 87)
TypeOff-route anti-vehicle mine
CountryFinland (design) / Sweden (production)
ManufacturerSaab Bofors Dynamics
Warhead PrincipleMisznay-Schardin effect (Explosively Formed Projectile)
EFP Initial Velocity~2,000 m/s
Armor Penetration60 mm at 30 m range
Effective RangeUp to 30 m (some sources cite up to 100 m)
Weight~3 kg (mine body)
ShapeCircular disc with concave front (EFP liner)
AimingBuilt-in simple sight on top of mine body
MountingStrapped to tree or pole via footman loops and adjustable webbing strap
Maximum Mounting Diameter~368 mm (14.5 in) tree/pole
InitiationCommand detonated (primary); tripwire or pressure (alternative)
Self-DestructNone
Self-NeutralizationNone
Anti-HandlingNot integral; may be added operationally

10. Frequently Asked Questions

Q: What is the Misznay-Schardin effect and how does it create an explosively formed projectile? A: The Misznay-Schardin effect describes the phenomenon where a concave metallic disc (liner), when backed by a detonating explosive charge, collapses and inverts into a high-velocity aerodynamic slug. Unlike a traditional shaped charge (which produces a thin, fast copper jet), the EFP produces a broader, heavier projectile that retains its penetrating ability over much greater distances. The FFV 016’s liner collapses into a slug traveling at approximately 2,000 m/s, capable of penetrating 60 mm of armor at 30 meters.

Q: How does an off-route mine differ from a conventional anti-vehicle mine? A: A conventional anti-vehicle mine is buried in or on a road surface and is activated by the pressure of a vehicle driving over it, attacking from below. An off-route mine is mounted above ground at the roadside (on a tree, pole, or stake) and fires a projectile laterally into the side of a passing vehicle. Off-route mines are immune to conventional mine clearance methods (rollers, plows, flails) because they are not in the ground. They are also less affected by frozen ground or rocky terrain that makes burial impossible.

Q: Why is the FFV 016 particularly relevant to modern EOD operations? A: The EFP principle used in the FFV 016 was extensively copied by insurgent groups to create devastating improvised explosive devices, particularly in Iraq (2004–2011). Iranian-supplied and locally manufactured EFP devices killed and wounded numerous coalition personnel. Understanding the FFV 016’s design and operating principle provides essential foundational knowledge for recognizing and countering EFP-based threats in any context.

Q: How is the FFV 016 aimed at its target? A: The mine has a simple built-in sight on top of the body. The operator mounts the mine to a tree or pole at the appropriate height (typically at the level of a vehicle’s side armor), aims it using the sight along the expected route of the target, and secures it in position. The concave face (EFP liner) faces the road. Accuracy at typical engagement distances of 10–30 meters is high, though the operator must estimate the correct aiming point to account for vehicle speed and the time between initiation and projectile arrival.

Q: What makes the FFV 016 difficult to detect and clear? A: Several factors combine to make the FFV 016 extremely difficult to counter: it is mounted off the road surface, defeating conventional mine clearance equipment; it can be mounted well back from the road (up to 30+ meters) and camouflaged; it has no metallic signature in the road surface for mine detectors to find; and command-detonated variants give no indication of their presence until fired. Detection typically requires visual observation of the mine, its mounting, or its command wires.

Q: What is the difference between the FFV 016 and FFV 018? A: The FFV 016 is a simpler, lighter mine that relies on command detonation or basic trip/pressure initiation. The FFV 018 is a larger, heavier (approximately 15 kg) system with a more powerful warhead capable of penetrating main battle tank side armor. Critically, the FFV 018 incorporates a built-in infrared sensor package that can autonomously detect and engage targets without operator intervention, making it a significantly more advanced and dangerous system.

Q: Does the FFV 016 have any self-destruct or self-neutralization capability? A: No. The basic FFV 016 does not incorporate self-destruct or self-neutralization features. Once emplaced and armed, it remains dangerous indefinitely. This is a significant humanitarian concern, as unmarked or forgotten FFV 016 mines can pose a long-term threat to civilian populations. Modern mine warfare conventions encourage the use of self-destruct/self-neutralization features, but the FFV 016 predates these requirements. Operational doctrine requires accurate recording of mine locations for future clearance.

Q: Can the FFV 016 defeat modern main battle tanks? A: The FFV 016’s 60 mm penetration capability at 30 meters is primarily effective against lightly armored vehicles such as APCs, IFVs, and wheeled armored vehicles. It would struggle to penetrate the side armor of most modern main battle tanks. However, it could potentially damage external equipment (optics, ERA panels, running gear) on heavier vehicles, and a hit to thinner armor sections (rear, top) could be effective. The larger FFV 018 was specifically designed for the anti-MBT role with its more powerful warhead.